

# **The Psychology of Intent: A Comprehensive Report on Methods for Detection and Inference from Text and Discourse**

## **Section I: Conceptualizing Intent: A Psychological Framework**

To detect and infer intention from text or discussion, it is first necessary to establish a robust psychological framework for what "intention" constitutes. This section defines the construct of intention, its formation, its relationship to behavior, and the fundamental cognitive capacity that enables humans to attribute it to others.

### **1.1 Defining Intention: Goal, Behavioral, and the Role of Commitment**

In psychology, an intention is formally understood as a mental state that represents a commitment to a course of action.1 It is more than a mere desire, expectation, or prediction of future behavior; it is a proactive commitment to bringing about a specific action or outcome.2 Intentions are often conceptualized as self-instructions that encapsulate an individual's underlying motivation to act.3  
A critical distinction is made between two types of intentions 3:

1. **Goal Intentions:** These focus on achieving a desired end-state (e.g., "I intend to get fit"). They are broader and define an outcome.  
2. **Behavioral Intentions:** These focus on engaging in specific actions, often in service of a larger goal (e.g., "I intend to engage in physical activity at least five times per week"). The analysis of text primarily deals with inferring these more concrete behavioral intentions.

The formation of intention is often explained through the **Belief-Desire-Intention (BDI) model**. The traditionally dominant belief-desire theory posits that an intention is a composite of a desire to perform an action and a belief that one will perform it.1 This framework suggests a causal chain where desires motivate behavior, beliefs direct that behavior, and intentions represent the commitment to enact it.1 An individual's attitude toward the behavior, the perceived social norms (subjective norms), and their perceived control over the behavior all coalesce to form the intention.4  
A significant challenge in this field is the **intention-behavior gap**, which refers to the well-documented discrepancy between a stated intention and the subsequent execution of the behavior.5 To address this, the concept of **intention strength** has been introduced. A "strong" intention is characterized by its durability (it is stable over time and resistant to change) and its impactfulness (it is a better predictor of behavior and biases information processing in its favor).3 Several factors moderate the relationship between intention and behavior, including the perceived difficulty of the goal, the level of desire for the outcome, and, most centrally, the degree of commitment to the goal.3 When the perceived difficulty is low and both desire and commitment are high, the intention-behavior gap tends to narrow.3

### **1.2 The Cognitive Architecture of Intent Inference: Theory of Mind (ToM)**

The ability to infer another person's intentions is not an innate skill but a complex cognitive faculty known as **Theory of Mind (ToM)**. ToM is the capacity to attribute mental states—such as beliefs, desires, emotions, and intentions—to oneself and to others, and to understand that these mental states can differ from one's own.6 It is this faculty that allows an observer to move beyond a literal interpretation of words or a simple observation of actions to ask the crucial question of *why* the person said or did something.7 Without ToM, the entire concept of an underlying, unstated intent would be psychologically inaccessible.10  
ToM develops in stages, beginning with precursors in infancy, such as understanding that others have goals (e.g., reaching for an object), and progressing through early childhood to the ability to understand false beliefs (e.g., that someone can hold a belief that is not true).7 By middle childhood and adolescence, this capacity matures into sophisticated social reasoning, allowing for the understanding of complex social situations, sarcasm, irony, and the nuanced motives of others.7  
The process of inferring intent is therefore an application of ToM. It is the cognitive mechanism that enables individuals to manage social interactions, cooperate with others, build empathy, and predict behavior based on inferences about unobservable mental states.7  
The psychological models of intention and the cognitive faculty of ToM are not separate domains; they are two sides of the same communicative coin. The factors that determine the strength of an individual's own intention are precisely the cues that an observer must analyze to make an accurate inference about that intention. An observer with a sophisticated ToM does not merely infer the content of a stated intention (e.g., "She intends to apply for the job"). Instead, the observer implicitly assesses the *strength* of that intention by analyzing linguistic and contextual cues related to the speaker's commitment, desire, and perceived behavioral control—the very same factors that predict whether the speaker will actually follow through.3 Therefore, a nuanced analysis of intent is not just about identifying a goal but about predicting its likelihood of execution. The methods used to infer intent are, in effect, attempts to solve the intention-behavior gap from an external, observational perspective. This recognition bridges social psychology theories of action with cognitive psychology theories of social perception, revealing a recursive loop where the production of intentional language and its interpretation are governed by the same underlying psychological principles.

## **Section II: The Architecture of Meaning: Linguistic and Pragmatic Frameworks**

To analyze intent from text, one must understand the linguistic principles that govern how meaning is conveyed. Language is not a simple code where words map directly to ideas; it is a complex system of action and inference. This section outlines the core linguistic and pragmatic theories that provide the foundation for intent detection methodologies.

### **2.1 Speech Act Theory: Language as Action**

Developed by philosophers J.L. Austin and John Searle, **Speech Act Theory** posits that utterances are not merely descriptive statements but are, in themselves, actions designed to achieve objectives in the world.12 When a person speaks, they are performing an act. This framework is fundamental to moving analysis beyond literal meaning to the speaker's communicative purpose.14  
Every speech act can be deconstructed into three distinct levels of action 13:

1. **Locutionary Act:** The performance of the utterance itself—the literal meaning of the words and sentences. For example, the locutionary act of saying, "Is there any salt?" is an inquiry about the presence of salt.  
2. **Illocutionary Act:** The speaker's intention in performing the locutionary act. This is the core of the communicative intent. In the example above, the illocutionary act is a *request* for someone to pass the salt.  
3. **Perlocutionary Act:** The actual effect of the utterance on the hearer. This could be the hearer passing the salt, feeling annoyed by the request, or ignoring it.

The central task in inferring communicative intent is identifying the illocutionary act. Searle classified illocutionary acts into five primary categories, which provide a useful typology for analysis 15:

* **Assertives (or Representatives):** Committing the speaker to the truth of a proposition (e.g., stating, asserting).  
* **Directives:** Attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do something (e.g., requesting, commanding, questioning).  
* **Commissives:** Committing the speaker to some future course of action (e.g., promising, offering, threatening).  
* **Expressives:** Expressing the speaker's psychological state or attitude (e.g., thanking, apologizing, congratulating).  
* **Declarations:** Bringing about a change in the state of the world by virtue of the utterance itself (e.g., "I now pronounce you husband and wife," "You're fired").

### **2.2 Pragmatic Inference: Bridging the Gap Between Saying and Meaning**

Human communication is characterized by an "inferential gap" between the literal meaning of words (what is said) and the speaker's intended meaning.17 **Pragmatics** is the branch of linguistics that studies how this gap is bridged through inference.17  
Pragmatic inference is not a simple decoding process but a form of social-cognitive reasoning.17 The listener operates under the assumption that the speaker is a cooperative and rational agent. This assumption entails that the speaker has considered alternative utterances and has intentionally chosen the one that is most informative and effective for their communicative goal in a given context.17 Bridging the inferential gap thus requires the listener to reason about the speaker's intentions.  
The role of **context** is paramount in this process. Context provides the essential background information—including situational cues, shared knowledge between speakers, cultural norms, and even non-linguistic actions like gestures or gaze—that allows the listener to derive the implied meaning.17 For example, the utterance "It's cold in here" is interpreted as a request to close the window only in a context where a window is open and the listener is capable of closing it.

### **2.3 Conversational Implicature and Grice's Cooperative Principle**

Philosopher H.P. Grice formalized the process of pragmatic inference with his theory of **conversational implicature**. An implicature is the meaning that is suggested or implied by an utterance but is not explicitly stated or logically entailed.19 For instance, if A asks B how a mutual friend is doing at his new job in a bank, and B replies, "Oh quite well, I think; he likes his colleagues, and he hasn't been to prison yet," B implicates that the friend is a type of person who might be tempted to steal from the bank.22  
Grice proposed that conversations are guided by an overarching **Cooperative Principle**, which he formulated as: "Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged".19 This principle is supported by four maxims of conversation:

1. **Maxim of Quantity:** Be as informative as necessary, but no more.  
2. **Maxim of Quality:** Be truthful; do not say things you believe to be false or for which you lack adequate evidence.  
3. **Maxim of Relation:** Be relevant.  
4. **Maxim of Manner:** Be clear, brief, and orderly; avoid obscurity and ambiguity.

Crucially, intentions are often conveyed when a speaker appears to blatantly violate, or **flout**, one of these maxims. The listener, assuming the speaker is still adhering to the overarching Cooperative Principle, performs an inference to find the additional meaning (the implicature) that makes the speaker's utterance cooperative after all.19 Sarcasm, for example, works by flouting the Maxim of Quality. If someone says "What lovely weather\!" during a hurricane, the listener infers the opposite meaning because the literal statement is obviously false.  
The analytical frameworks of pragmatics, which seek to explain communicative intent, operate on a foundational assumption of the speaker's rationality and cooperativeness.17 This starting point determines the entire analytical trajectory, guiding the analyst to find a logical, coherent reason for an utterance. In contrast, psychoanalytic methods, which will be explored later, often begin from the opposite premise: that speakers are driven by irrational, unconscious forces that disrupt rational communication.23 This creates a fundamental fork in the road of interpretation. For a given utterance, the pragmatic approach seeks to uncover the *communicative intent*—the rational goal the speaker is trying to achieve within the social game of conversation. The psychoanalytic approach, however, seeks to uncover the *underlying intent*—the hidden, often unconscious, motive or conflict that the utterance reveals symptomatically. These two approaches are not necessarily mutually exclusive; they operate at different levels of psychological depth. An utterance can simultaneously have a rational communicative function and be a manifestation of an unconscious process. Recognizing this distinction is critical, as the choice of analytical method is not merely a technical decision but an implicit theoretical commitment to a particular model of the human mind. An exhaustive analysis must therefore present these frameworks as complementary but philosophically distinct.

## **Section III: Qualitative Methodologies for Uncovering Intent**

Building upon the theoretical frameworks of linguistics and psychology, a range of qualitative methodologies have been developed to systematically analyze text and discourse. These methods provide structured approaches for moving from raw linguistic data to robust inferences about speaker intentions, underlying beliefs, and the social functions of language.

### **3.1 Discourse Analysis: Language, Power, and Ideology**

**Discourse Analysis (DA)** is a broad research method that examines language in its social context. It moves beyond the analysis of individual sentences to understand how larger chunks of language—such as conversations, articles, or speeches—are used to construct social reality.25 The core premise of DA is that language is not a neutral mirror of the world; rather, it actively shapes our understanding of it, reflecting and reinforcing societal values, assumptions, and ideologies.25  
A prominent and particularly relevant branch of DA is **Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA)**. CDA focuses specifically on the relationship between language, power, and social inequality.29 It investigates how dominant groups use discourse to establish and maintain their power, often by shaping public perception and marginalizing alternative viewpoints.26 The methodology involves a multi-level analysis of texts, examining:

* **Vocabulary:** The choice of words and their ideological associations (e.g., calling individuals "illegal aliens" versus "undocumented immigrants").  
* **Grammar:** The use of active versus passive voice to assign or obscure agency (e.g., "Mistakes were made" versus "We made mistakes").  
* **Structure:** How a narrative is constructed to emphasize certain points and de-emphasize others.  
* **Genre:** How the conventions of a particular genre (e.g., a news report, a political speech) are used to achieve specific effects.26

A crucial part of the CDA process is gathering extensive information about the social, political, and historical context in which the text was created and received.26

#### **Case Study Application: Analysis of Therapeutic Transcripts**

Discourse analysis has proven to be a powerful tool for examining the dynamics of psychotherapy. By analyzing transcripts of therapy sessions, researchers can uncover how meaning is co-constructed between therapist and client, how therapeutic change is enacted through language, and how broader socio-cultural discourses about health, illness, and identity are mobilized within the clinical setting.34 For example, a study by Burck et al. (1998) analyzed a systemic family therapy session, demonstrating how the therapist's linguistic interventions—specifically, re-contextualizing and reframing the family's statements—functioned to shift the family's dominant discourse from one of "being out of control" to one of "being in charge." This analysis made visible the therapist's implicit intent: to empower the family by altering the very language they used to describe their problem.36

### **3.2 Conversation Analysis: The Mechanics of Social Action**

**Conversation Analysis (CA)** is a highly detailed, micro-analytic method that studies the structure and organization of naturally occurring spoken interaction.25 Its fundamental assumption is that conversation is a systematically orderly activity, and this order is produced and understood by participants on a moment-by-moment basis to accomplish social actions.40 CA is less concerned with *what* is said and more with *how* it is said, focusing on non-verbal and prosodic features like pauses, intonation, interruptions, and word stress as crucial data points.39  
Key analytical concepts in CA include 42:

* **Turn-Taking:** The highly organized system that speakers use to manage the exchange of speaking turns with minimal overlap or gap.  
* **Adjacency Pairs:** Sequences of paired utterances produced by different speakers, such as a question followed by an answer, or an invitation followed by an acceptance or rejection. The first part of the pair makes the second part conditionally relevant.  
* **Repair Mechanisms:** The practices participants use to address and resolve problems in speaking, hearing, or understanding.

The methodology of CA is rigorously empirical and data-driven. It relies on meticulous transcriptions of audio or video recordings, often using specialized notation systems (e.g., the Jeffersonian system) to capture the fine-grained details of interaction.39

#### **Case Study Application: Social Norms in Online Support Groups**

CA has been effectively applied to understand social dynamics in digital environments. One study analyzed the initial posts of newcomers to an online support group for eating disorders.44 The analysis revealed a consistent pattern: newcomers frequently performed the social action of "legitimizing" their presence in the group. They did this by framing their self-presentation in terms of a formal diagnosis or by describing symptoms that met diagnostic criteria. This linguistic strategy served as a "ticket of entry," demonstrating their understanding of and alignment with an implicit community norm that membership is for those who are "officially" ill. The analysis thus uncovered the newcomers' intent to be accepted by the group by demonstrating their conformity to its unstated rules of belonging.44

### **3.3 Content Analysis: Systematic Interpretation of Text**

**Content analysis** is a research technique used to systematically identify, categorize, and often quantify the presence of specific words, concepts, or themes within a body of text or other forms of communication.48 It serves as a bridge between qualitative and quantitative approaches, allowing for both interpretive depth and statistical rigor.50  
A fundamental distinction within content analysis is between manifest and latent content 52:

* **Manifest Content Analysis:** This approach focuses on the surface level of the text. It involves coding and counting the frequency of explicit, visible, and objectively identifiable terms or phrases (e.g., counting the number of times a politician says the word "freedom"). This method is descriptive and aims for high reliability.53  
* **Latent Content Analysis:** This approach involves a deeper, interpretive analysis to uncover the underlying, implicit meanings, themes, and ideologies embedded in the text. It requires the researcher to "read between the lines" and make inferences based on context and connotation (e.g., analyzing how the concept of "freedom" is framed to infer an underlying individualistic or nationalistic ideology). This method is more subjective but can yield richer insights.53

The general methodology involves defining the research question, selecting a sample of texts, developing a coding scheme (either deductively from existing theory or inductively from the data itself), systematically coding the texts according to the scheme, and then analyzing the coded data for patterns and relationships.48

#### **Case Study Application: Analyzing Intent in Political Speeches**

Political discourse is a fertile ground for content analysis. A quantitative, *manifest* analysis of a candidate's speeches might involve counting the frequency of words related to the economy ("jobs," "growth," "inflation") versus social issues ("values," "family," "tradition") to objectively measure their campaign's thematic focus.57 In contrast, a qualitative, *latent* analysis could examine the same speeches to understand how specific groups, such as immigrants, are framed. By analyzing the adjectives and metaphors used to describe them (e.g., "flood," "threat," "burden" versus "dreamers," "contributors," "families"), the researcher can infer the speaker's underlying intent to either stoke fear or foster empathy, thereby constructing a particular social reality for strategic political ends.57

### **3.4 Lexical and Narrative Analysis**

**Lexical Choice Analysis** operates on the assumption that the specific words a speaker or writer chooses are not arbitrary but are motivated by their underlying beliefs, attitudes, and communicative goals.60 By analyzing patterns in vocabulary—such as the repetition of certain words, the use of synonyms and antonyms, and the co-occurrence of words (collocations)—analysts can identify "lexical fields" that construct a particular perspective or worldview.60 For example, the choice to describe a corporate action as "right-sizing" versus "mass layoffs" reveals a clear intent to frame the event in either a neutral, managerial light or a negative, human-impact-focused one.33  
**Narrative Inconsistency Analysis** is a method primarily used for detecting deception or uncovering hidden motives. It focuses on identifying contradictions, gaps, and changes in detail within a person's account of an event over time.65 The psychological premise is that fabricating and maintaining a false narrative imposes a significant cognitive load, making it difficult to keep all the details consistent, especially when questioned repeatedly.66 This method must be distinguished from the analysis of **confabulation**, a neuropsychological phenomenon where an individual unconsciously fills in gaps in their memory with fabricated information but genuinely believes these false memories to be true. Confabulation indicates a memory deficit, not a deceptive intent.67 Inconsistencies in truthful, but emotionally charged, narratives can also arise from various psychological motives, such as the desire to create a coherent explanation for a confusing event.38  
The qualitative methodologies for inferring intent can be organized along a continuum of analytical focus, from the microscopic to the macroscopic. At the most granular level is Conversation Analysis, which can scrutinize the sequential function of single words, sounds, and even timed pauses within a turn of talk to understand the immediate social action being performed.39 Occupying a middle ground, Content Analysis and Lexical Analysis examine patterns of words and themes within a complete document or across a collection of texts to infer an author's preoccupations and thematic focus.50 At the broadest level, Discourse Analysis connects the linguistic features of a text to vast socio-cultural contexts, historical forces, ideologies, and systems of power.25 These methods are not mutually exclusive but can be powerfully combined. A comprehensive investigation might begin with a micro-level CA of an interaction to see *how* something is being done, proceed to a meso-level Content Analysis to see *what* patterns are present, and culminate in a macro-level DA to understand *why* these patterns matter in a broader social context. This layered approach allows for a multi-faceted understanding of intent as it operates simultaneously as an immediate social action, a patterned authorial choice, and a manifestation of systemic ideology.

## **Section IV: Psychoanalytic Lenses: Accessing Unconscious Intentions**

While the previously discussed methods focus on conscious or communicative intent, psychoanalytic approaches are uniquely designed to probe deeper, uncovering intentions that may be unstated because they are unconscious—that is, unknown even to the speaker. These methods treat linguistic and behavioral anomalies not as errors to be dismissed, but as meaningful data revealing hidden conflicts, desires, and motives.

### **4.1 Metaphor Analysis: Unconscious Thought and Embodied Cognition**

From a psychoanalytic viewpoint, metaphor is not merely a figure of speech but a fundamental mode of mentation—a primary process of thought.70 It is the cognitive act of understanding and experiencing one thing in terms of another.70 The psychoanalytic process itself is inherently metaphorical: it seeks to understand the patient's present experiences (e.g., in relationships, dreams, or the transference to the analyst) as metaphorical re-enactments of past conflicts and relationships.71  
This perspective finds compelling support in the modern cognitive science of **embodied cognition**, which demonstrates that many of our most basic conceptual metaphors are grounded in universal human bodily experiences.71 For example, the common metaphor AFFECTION IS WARMTH arises from the primary physical experience of being held warmly by a caregiver as an infant. Similarly, UNDERSTANDING IS GRASPING stems from the kinesthetic experience of physically manipulating objects with our hands.73 These embodied metaphors form a kind of universal, biologically-based symbolic "code" that can be used to interpret spontaneous and unconscious thought, particularly as it manifests in dreams and fantasies.73  
In a clinical setting, the recurring or central metaphors used by a patient can provide a powerful window into their unconscious "image-schemas"—the core, often unarticulated, structures that organize their emotional and relational world.71 The therapeutic work often involves helping the patient "deliteralize" what have become "dead" metaphors (e.g., the absolute belief that "my job *is* a jail") into "live" ones (e.g., the more flexible and reflective understanding that "my job is *like* a jail in some ways"). This process restores psychological polysemy and the capacity for more nuanced thought.75

#### **Case Study Example: "A Fallen Woman"**

A psychoanalytic case study by Schneider tracked the use of a central metaphor, "fall/fallen," throughout a patient's long-term treatment.77 The metaphor was hypothesized to be a linguistic container for the patient's unconscious conflicts related to trauma, moral judgment, and a negative self-concept as a "fallen woman." While the study's quantitative measures did not find a significant change in the affective content of the metaphor over the course of the therapy, it did confirm that the metaphor was subjectively unique, highly meaningful, and used with significantly greater frequency than a control metaphor. This suggests that such central metaphors serve as stable anchors for complex, unconscious constellations of meaning, making their analysis a key pathway to understanding a patient's inner world.77

### **4.2 Parapraxis: The Psychology of the "Freudian Slip"**

A **parapraxis**, known colloquially as a "Freudian slip," is an error in speech, memory, or physical action that is interpreted in psychoanalytic theory as a meaningful revelation of an unconscious wish, thought, or conflict.24 Sigmund Freud, in *The Psychopathology of Everyday Life*, argued that such slips are not random accidents but are psychologically determined phenomena that provide a glimpse into the workings of the unconscious mind.82  
The concept of parapraxis extends beyond simple slips of the tongue to encompass a wide range of everyday errors 24:

* **Verbal Slips:** Saying one word when meaning another (e.g., saying "I'm *mad* to meet you" instead of "I'm *glad* to meet you," potentially revealing underlying hostility).81  
* **Misreadings or Mishearings:** Perceiving a different word than the one that was written or spoken.  
* **Forgetting:** Temporarily forgetting a name, word, or intention, which is thought to be motivated by an unconscious desire to avoid an associated memory or feeling.  
* **Misplacing Objects:** Losing or misplacing an item in a way that serves an unconscious purpose (e.g., "forgetting" one's wallet at the home of a person one unconsciously wishes to see again).83

The underlying mechanism proposed is that the ego's defenses, which normally keep repressed or unacceptable thoughts out of conscious awareness, are momentarily weakened. Factors such as fatigue, stress, distraction, or cognitive overload can create an opening for these hidden thoughts to "slip" out in a disguised or distorted form.79  
While psychoanalysis provides the primary framework for interpreting these slips, cognitive psychology offers alternative explanations. These include simple phonological errors (substituting a similar-sounding word), strong habit substitution (saying a more common phrase instead of an intended one), or general cognitive underspecification.24 However, these explanations are not entirely divorced from psychological states. Experimental evidence has shown, for instance, that individuals made anxious about the possibility of receiving an electric shock are significantly more likely to make shock-related verbal errors. This suggests that even if the mechanism is cognitive, the content of the slip can still be primed by underlying emotional concerns and intentions.82

## **Section V: Computational and Quantitative Approaches to Intent Detection**

The proliferation of digital text data has spurred the development of computational methods that can analyze language at an unprecedented scale. These quantitative approaches leverage natural language processing (NLP) and machine learning to systematically identify and measure psychological states, emotions, and intentions from vast textual corpora.

### **5.1 Sentiment Analysis and Emotion Detection: From Polarity to Nuanced Affect**

A foundational computational approach involves analyzing the affective tone of a text. It is important to distinguish between two related but distinct tasks 89:

* **Sentiment Analysis:** This is the process of determining the overall polarity of a text—classifying it as positive, negative, or neutral. It is often used to gauge opinion on a particular subject, such as a product or political candidate.89  
* **Emotion Detection:** This is a more granular task that aims to identify specific emotional states expressed in a text, such as joy, sadness, anger, fear, or surprise. This provides a more nuanced understanding of the author's psychological state and can be more valuable for inferring specific intentions or motivations.89

These NLP techniques generally employ one of three core methodologies 89:

1. **Lexicon-Based Approaches:** These methods use pre-compiled dictionaries (lexicons) where words are assigned scores for polarity or specific emotions. The overall sentiment of a text is calculated by aggregating the scores of the words it contains.  
2. **Traditional Machine Learning Approaches:** These involve training classification algorithms (e.g., Naïve Bayes, Support Vector Machines) on large datasets of texts that have been manually labeled with sentiment or emotion categories. The trained model can then predict the category of new, unlabeled texts.97  
3. **Deep Learning Approaches:** More advanced methods use deep neural networks, such as Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) networks or Transformer models like BERT. These models are capable of understanding word order, context, and subtle linguistic nuances, leading to higher accuracy, especially in complex cases.96

Despite their power, these automated methods face significant challenges. They often struggle to correctly interpret subjectivity, context-dependent meanings, irony, and sarcasm, all of which can invert the apparent sentiment of a statement.97 For example, a rule-based system would likely classify the statement "Great, another pointless meeting" as positive due to the word "great," completely missing the sarcastic intent.

#### **Application: Tracking Mental Health Discourse on Social Media**

Sentiment and emotion analysis are increasingly being applied in public health to monitor mental health trends on social media platforms like Twitter and Reddit.100 By analyzing millions of posts for linguistic markers associated with depression, anxiety, or suicidal ideation, researchers can gain real-time insights into population-level psychological distress. These tools can identify trends, such as spikes in anxiety during a public crisis, and can even be used to detect patterns in an individual's posts that may signal a need for intervention.100

### **5.2 Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count (LIWC): Quantifying Psychological States**

**Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count (LIWC)** is a widely used and scientifically validated text analysis software that operates on the principle that the words people use provide reliable clues about their psychological states, personality, and social dynamics.104 Rather than interpreting meaning, LIWC performs a simple but powerful function: it reads a text and calculates the percentage of words that fall into various predefined, psychologically meaningful categories.105  
The core of the program is the **LIWC dictionary**, a massive lexicon where thousands of words and word stems are assigned to over 100 hierarchical categories.90 Key categories include 111:

* **Psychological Processes:**  
  * *Affective Processes:* Positive Emotion (e.g., love, nice), Negative Emotion (e.g., hurt, nasty), Anxiety (e.g., worried), Anger (e.g., hate).  
  * *Social Processes:* Words related to family, friends, and social interaction.  
  * *Cognitive Processes:* Words reflecting thought processes, such as Insight (e.g., think, know), Causation (e.g., because, effect), Certainty (e.g., always), and Tentativeness (e.g., maybe).  
* **Linguistic Dimensions:** Function words like Pronouns (I, we, you), Articles (a, an, the), and Prepositions.  
* **Personal Concerns:** Categories related to Work, Achievement, Leisure, Money, and Religion.

Recent versions of the software, such as LIWC-22, also generate high-level **summary variables**. These are composite scores derived from multiple word categories that reflect broader psychological constructs like *Analytical Thinking*, *Clout* (social status/confidence), *Authenticity*, and *Emotional Tone*.108

#### **Application: Analyzing Group Dynamics in Online Forum Interactions**

LIWC is an effective tool for analyzing communication patterns in online groups and forums to infer group processes.105 For instance, research has shown that an increase in the use of first-person plural pronouns ("we," "us," "our") over time is a reliable indicator of growing group cohesion and identity formation.118 Conversely, high rates of first-person singular pronouns ("I," "me," "my") can indicate self-focus, which is often correlated with depression.121 By tracking the relative frequencies of different LIWC categories in forum discussions, researchers can quantitatively measure shifts in a group's emotional tone, cognitive focus (e.g., moving from tentative language to more certain language), and social dynamics without needing to manually read and interpret every post.105  
The advent of computational methods has enabled the analysis of text on a scale previously unimaginable, offering powerful tools for identifying broad patterns in psychological states and intentions.100 However, this scalability comes at a cost. Methods like LIWC and sentiment analysis operate primarily through word counting or statistical pattern matching, which means they inherently lack a deep understanding of linguistic context, semantics, and pragmatics.99 A LIWC analysis, for example, cannot distinguish between the different meanings of a polysemous word like "run" (to physically run, to run a company, a run in a stocking). Similarly, a sentiment analysis model might misinterpret sarcasm, scoring "I just *love* being stuck in traffic" as positive.99 In contrast, qualitative methods like Discourse Analysis or Conversation Analysis, while not scalable, are designed precisely to unpack these nuanced, context-dependent meanings through careful human interpretation. This reveals a fundamental trade-off in the field: computational methods achieve objectivity and scale by sacrificing contextual depth, while qualitative methods achieve this depth at the cost of scale and by introducing researcher subjectivity. The most robust approach to intent detection, therefore, is often a mixed-methods design. Computational tools can be employed for a first-pass analysis of a large dataset to identify general trends or flag anomalous texts (e.g., a sudden surge in anger-related words in an online forum). Following this, qualitative methods can be used to perform a deep-dive analysis on a smaller, targeted sample of these texts to understand the specific context and nuanced intentions behind the computationally-identified pattern. This synergistic approach combines the "what" from quantitative analysis with the "why" from qualitative analysis.

## **Section VI: Synthesis and Critical Evaluation: Challenges and Frontiers in Intent Detection**

The inference of intent from text and discourse is a complex endeavor, fraught with methodological, psychological, and ethical challenges. While the methods outlined in this report provide a powerful toolkit, their application requires a critical awareness of their inherent limitations and the ambiguous nature of language itself.

### **6.1 The Problem of Ambiguity: Lexical, Syntactic, and Semantic Hurdles**

Language is fundamentally ambiguous, a fact that poses a persistent challenge to any analytical method, whether human or computational. Ambiguity can manifest in several forms 123:

* **Lexical Ambiguity:** This occurs when a single word has multiple distinct meanings (homonymy) or related senses (polysemy). For example, the word "bank" can refer to a financial institution or a river's edge.124  
* **Syntactic Ambiguity:** This arises when the grammatical structure of a sentence allows for multiple interpretations. In the sentence "He ate the cookies on the couch," it is unclear whether the cookies were on the couch or he was on the couch while eating them.123  
* **Semantic Ambiguity:** This occurs when a phrase or sentence has more than one meaning, even with a clear syntactic structure. The classic example "We saw her duck" could mean either that they witnessed her perform the action of ducking or that they saw a bird belonging to her.123

Humans are remarkably adept at resolving ambiguity in real-time by drawing upon vast reserves of contextual knowledge and world experience.124 However, this remains a formidable challenge for computational models and a significant potential source of error and misinterpretation for human analysts who may lack the full context.124

### **6.2 Cross-Cultural Variations in Communicative Intent**

The norms governing how intentions are expressed and interpreted are not universal but are deeply shaped by culture. Applying an analytical framework developed in one cultural context to another can lead to profound misinterpretations.127 Key cultural dimensions that impact communication include:

* **Direct vs. Indirect Communication:** In direct (or low-context) cultures, such as Germany and the United States, meaning is expected to be conveyed explicitly and literally. The speaker is responsible for clarity. In indirect (or high-context) cultures, such as Japan and many Arab nations, meaning is often implied and embedded in context, non-verbal cues, and shared understanding. The listener is responsible for inferring the intent.127 A direct "no" from a German speaker is efficient, but may be perceived as rude in Japan, where a refusal might be phrased as "That will be very difficult."  
* **Use of Silence:** In some cultures, silence during a conversation is valued as a sign of respect and thoughtfulness, allowing time to process information. In others, it is perceived as uncomfortable, indicating disagreement or a breakdown in communication.128

These variations have significant implications for analysis. For example, a Conversation Analysis of turn-taking and pauses would yield very different interpretations of intent depending on the cultural background of the speakers. Similarly, a pragmatic analysis based on Grice's maxims assumes a shared understanding of "relevance" and "informativeness" that may not hold across cultures.

### **6.3 Methodological Limitations and the Role of Researcher Subjectivity**

Every method for inferring intent has inherent limitations. A critical evaluation requires acknowledging these weaknesses to avoid overstating the certainty of any conclusion.

* **Discourse and Conversation Analysis:** These qualitative methods offer unparalleled depth but are often criticized for their subjectivity. The interpretation relies heavily on the analyst's expertise and perspective, and findings from small, specific case studies may not be generalizable.131  
* **Content Analysis:** While more systematic, this method can be reductive, stripping words of their context and nuanced meaning. The development of the coding scheme is also a subjective process, susceptible to researcher bias.122  
* **LIWC:** As a purely quantitative, word-counting tool, LIWC is fundamentally acontextual. It cannot disambiguate word senses and is blind to irony, metaphor, and pragmatic function. The sheer number of variables it produces also creates a high risk of finding spurious correlations (Type I errors) if not guided by strong theory.105  
* **Sentiment Analysis:** These models are notoriously brittle, struggling with sarcasm, context-dependent polarity, and domain-specific language. A model trained on movie reviews will likely perform poorly on analyzing clinical transcripts.100

In all qualitative and interpretive methods, the researcher is the primary analytical instrument. Their personal beliefs, experiences, and biases—the **"Subjective I"**—inevitably shape the research process, from the questions asked to the interpretation of the data.100 The rigorous response to this challenge is not a futile attempt to achieve perfect objectivity, but the practice of **reflexivity**. This involves a continuous process of self-examination, where the researcher critically reflects upon and transparently articulates their own positionality and potential biases, allowing the reader to assess their possible influence on the findings.143  
The following table provides a comparative summary of the methodologies discussed in this report, highlighting their primary focus, strengths, and limitations in the context of inferring intent.  
**Table 1: Comparative Framework of Methodologies for Intent Detection**

| Methodology | Primary Focus | Unit of Analysis | Data Type | Type of Intent Inferred | Key Strengths | Major Limitations |
| :---- | :---- | :---- | :---- | :---- | :---- | :---- |
| **Discourse Analysis** | Language use in social context; power, ideology. | Texts, conversations, cultural narratives. | Natural language (written/spoken). | Social, ideological, communicative. | Deep contextual understanding; reveals hidden power structures. | Highly interpretive and subjective; time-intensive; difficult to generalize. |
| **Conversation Analysis** | Sequential organization of talk-in-interaction. | Turns, adjacency pairs, repair sequences. | Transcribed audio/video of natural conversation. | Social action, immediate interactional goals. | High precision and empirical grounding in data; reveals mechanics of interaction. | Micro-focus may ignore broader context; restricted data type; transcription is selective. |
| **Content Analysis** | Presence and patterns of words, themes, concepts. | Words, phrases, sentences, themes (codes). | Any text or communication (written, oral, visual). | **Manifest:** Explicit topics. **Latent:** Underlying themes, attitudes. | Systematic and replicable (manifest); can handle large data; flexible (qual/quant). | Can be reductive, ignoring nuance; latent analysis is subjective; time-consuming. |
| **Psychoanalytic Analysis** | Unconscious conflicts, desires, and processes. | Slips of the tongue, metaphors, narrative gaps, dreams. | Transcripts, patient narratives, free association. | Unconscious, repressed, underlying. | Accesses deeper layers of motivation; provides rich, idiographic insights. | Lacks empirical falsifiability; highly subjective; relies on a specific theoretical framework. |
| **Sentiment Analysis** | Emotional tone and polarity of text. | Document, sentence, or aspect/feature level. | Large volumes of text (e.g., social media, reviews). | Affective state, opinion. | Highly scalable, fast, and automated; provides quantitative metrics. | Struggles with context, sarcasm, and nuance; accuracy can be domain-specific. |
| **LIWC** | Frequency of words in psychological categories. | Words, word stems. | Any text file. | Psychological states (cognitive, emotional, social). | Objective, replicable, and fast; validated against psychological constructs; scalable. | Acontextual word counting; cannot disambiguate word meanings; risk of spurious findings. |

### **6.4 Ethical Considerations in the Inference of Psychological States**

The act of inferring another person's intentions, particularly their hidden or unconscious psychological states, carries significant ethical responsibilities. Researchers in this domain must adhere to the core principles of human research ethics as outlined by bodies like the American Psychological Association (APA) and the British Psychological Society (BPS).148

* **Informed Consent:** Participants have the right to know the purpose of the research and how their data will be used. This principle is challenged when analyzing publicly available data, such as social media posts, where individuals have not explicitly consented to have their language analyzed for psychological traits or intentions. Researchers must carefully consider whether such data can be considered truly public and whether its use infringes on individuals' reasonable expectations of privacy.149  
* **Privacy and Confidentiality:** The analysis of text can reveal highly sensitive personal information, including mental health status, political beliefs, or private relationship details. Researchers have a paramount duty to protect the anonymity of participants by de-identifying data and ensuring secure data storage and handling protocols.148  
* **Potential for Harm (Non-maleficence):** The interpretation of intent can have real-world consequences. A misinterpretation could lead to the stigmatization of an individual or a group (e.g., labeling their communication style as inherently deceptive or irrational). Researchers must conduct a thorough risk-benefit analysis, prioritizing the welfare of participants over the research objectives and taking steps to minimize any potential for psychological, social, or reputational harm.149  
* **Deception:** Some research designs may require withholding the true purpose of the study to elicit naturalistic linguistic behavior. The use of such deception must be scientifically justified, deemed necessary with no feasible alternatives, approved by an ethics review board, and must not conceal risks of significant harm. A full debriefing is mandatory at the conclusion of the study to inform participants of the true nature of the research and the reasons for the deception.149

### **Conclusion**

The detection and inference of intent from text and discussion is a multifaceted challenge that sits at the intersection of psychology, linguistics, and computer science. This report has demonstrated that "intent" is not a monolithic concept but a layered construct, ranging from immediate, conscious communicative goals to deep, unconscious motives. Consequently, no single methodology is sufficient for its comprehensive analysis.  
The choice of analytical tool—be it the micro-lens of Conversation Analysis, the ideological critique of Discourse Analysis, the interpretive depth of Psychoanalysis, or the scalable power of computational methods like LIWC and Sentiment Analysis—must be deliberately aligned with the specific layer of intent under investigation. Pragmatic and psychoanalytic frameworks, while seemingly contradictory in their assumptions about human rationality, offer complementary perspectives on communicative versus underlying intentions.  
The most significant challenges in the field remain the inherent ambiguity of language, the profound influence of cultural context on communication styles, and the unavoidable subjectivity of human interpretation. While computational tools offer the promise of objectivity and scale, they do so at the cost of contextual nuance, highlighting a central trade-off between breadth and depth. The most promising path forward lies in mixed-methods research, where the broad pattern-finding capabilities of computational analysis are used to guide the deep, interpretive power of qualitative inquiry.  
Ultimately, any attempt to infer the intentions of others is an ethically sensitive act. It demands not only methodological rigor but also a profound commitment to the principles of informed consent, privacy, and the minimization of harm. As our tools for analysis become more powerful, so too does our responsibility to wield them with critical self-awareness, humility, and unwavering respect for the complexity of the human minds we seek to understand.

#### **Works cited**

1. Intention \- Wikipedia, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intention)  
2. Intentions (Chapter 10\) \- Cognitive Motivation \- Cambridge University Press & Assessment, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cognitive-motivation/intentions/7D8A824BC77BA323B658EFC9CE02DD8D](https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cognitive-motivation/intentions/7D8A824BC77BA323B658EFC9CE02DD8D)  
3. Understanding the intention-behavior gap: The role of intention ..., accessed October 24, 2025, [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9386038/](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9386038/)  
4. Deciphering the Role of Intention in Social Behavior \- Psychology Town, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://psychology.town/general/role-intention-social-behavior/](https://psychology.town/general/role-intention-social-behavior/)  
5. Understanding the intention-behavior gap: The role of ... \- Frontiers, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.923464/full](https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.923464/full)  
6. Theory of Mind and Communication in Health and Risk Messaging, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://oxfordre.com/communication/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228613.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228613-e-256](https://oxfordre.com/communication/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228613.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228613-e-256)  
7. What Is Theory Of Mind In Psychology? \- Simply Psychology, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://www.simplypsychology.org/theory-of-mind.html](https://www.simplypsychology.org/theory-of-mind.html)  
8. Theory of mind \- Wikipedia, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory\_of\_mind](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_mind)  
9. Why Is Theory of Mind Important for Referential Communication? \- PMC \- NIH, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6132837/](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6132837/)  
10. Pragmatic communication and Theory of Mind | Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences \- Journals, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2023.0502](https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2023.0502)  
11. Theory of Mind: How We Learn to Understand Each Other \- Positive Psychology, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://positivepsychology.com/theory-of-mind/](https://positivepsychology.com/theory-of-mind/)  
12. Speech act theory | PPTX \- Slideshare, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/speech-act-theory-236203415/236203415](https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/speech-act-theory-236203415/236203415)  
13. Speech act \- Wikipedia, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech\_act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech_act)  
14. Speech Act | Research Starters \- EBSCO, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/language-and-linguistics/speech-act](https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/language-and-linguistics/speech-act)  
15. What Is The Speech Act Theory: Definition and Examples \- ThoughtCo, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://www.thoughtco.com/speech-act-theory-1691986](https://www.thoughtco.com/speech-act-theory-1691986)  
16. www.mdpi.com, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4893/12/4/79\#:\~:text=Speech%20Act%20Theory%20(SAT)%20aims,communication%20while%20collaborating%20with%20humans.](https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4893/12/4/79#:~:text=Speech%20Act%20Theory%20\(SAT\)%20aims,communication%20while%20collaborating%20with%20humans.)  
17. Pragmatics as Social Inference About Intentional Action | Open Mind \- MIT Press Direct, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://direct.mit.edu/opmi/article/doi/10.1162/opmi\_a\_00191/127985/Pragmatics-as-Social-Inference-About-Intentional](https://direct.mit.edu/opmi/article/doi/10.1162/opmi_a_00191/127985/Pragmatics-as-Social-Inference-About-Intentional)  
18. Intention in pragmatics \- UQ eSpace, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:399615/UQ399615\_OA.pdf](https://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:399615/UQ399615_OA.pdf)  
19. Pragmatics (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy), accessed October 24, 2025, [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/pragmatics/](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/pragmatics/)  
20. Pragmatics as Social Inference About Intentional Action \- PubMed, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39995579/](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39995579/)  
21. Pragmatic inference \- (Intro to Linguistics) \- Vocab, Definition, Explanations | Fiveable, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://fiveable.me/key-terms/introduction-linguistics/pragmatic-inference](https://fiveable.me/key-terms/introduction-linguistics/pragmatic-inference)  
22. Grice's theory of conversational implicature | DOC \- Slideshare, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/grices-theory-of-conversational-implicature/13327978](https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/grices-theory-of-conversational-implicature/13327978)  
23. Unconscious mind \- Wikipedia, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unconscious\_mind](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unconscious_mind)  
24. Freudian slip \- Wikipedia, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freudian\_slip](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freudian_slip)  
25. Discourse Analysis \- Simply Psychology, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://www.simplypsychology.org/discourse-analysis.html](https://www.simplypsychology.org/discourse-analysis.html)  
26. Critical Discourse Analysis | Definition, Guide & Examples \- Scribbr, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/discourse-analysis/](https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/discourse-analysis/)  
27. Chapter 23: Discourse analysis – Qualitative Research – a practical guide for health and social care researchers and practitioners, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://oercollective.caul.edu.au/qualitative-research/chapter/\_\_unknown\_\_-23/](https://oercollective.caul.edu.au/qualitative-research/chapter/__unknown__-23/)  
28. Discourse analysis: what is it and why is it relevant to family practice ..., accessed October 24, 2025, [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2743732/](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2743732/)  
29. Critical Discourse Analysis Meaning and Applications \- Insight7 \- Call Analytics & AI Coaching for Customer Teams, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://insight7.io/critical-discourse-analysis-meaning-and-applications/](https://insight7.io/critical-discourse-analysis-meaning-and-applications/)  
30. Foucauldian discourse analysis \- Wikipedia, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foucauldian\_discourse\_analysis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foucauldian_discourse_analysis)  
31. The Language of Power: Discourse Analysis and the Politics of Representation, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://llrjournal.com/index.php/11/article/download/31/41](https://llrjournal.com/index.php/11/article/download/31/41)  
32. Power Dynamics in Discourse → Term \- ESG → Sustainability Directory, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://esg.sustainability-directory.com/term/power-dynamics-in-discourse/](https://esg.sustainability-directory.com/term/power-dynamics-in-discourse/)  
33. Power in Discourse Analysis \[Interactive Article\], accessed October 24, 2025, [https://discourseanalyzer.com/power-in-discourse-analysis/](https://discourseanalyzer.com/power-in-discourse-analysis/)  
34. Discourse Analysis in Psychology Contexts \- Insight7 \- Call Analytics & AI Coaching for Customer Teams, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://insight7.io/discourse-analysis-in-psychology-contexts/](https://insight7.io/discourse-analysis-in-psychology-contexts/)  
35. Discourse analysis: Rich pickings for counsellors and therapists | Request PDF, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233122284\_Discourse\_analysis\_Rich\_pickings\_for\_counsellors\_and\_therapists](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233122284_Discourse_analysis_Rich_pickings_for_counsellors_and_therapists)  
36. Discourse analysis and psychotherapy: A critical review \- Taylor ..., accessed October 24, 2025, [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/13642530701363445](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/13642530701363445)  
37. (PDF) Discourse analysis and psychotherapy: A critical review \- ResearchGate, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/256437848\_Discourse\_analysis\_and\_psychotherapy\_A\_critical\_review](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/256437848_Discourse_analysis_and_psychotherapy_A_critical_review)  
38. Narrative Data Analysis and Interpretation \- Sage Publishing, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://us.sagepub.com/sites/default/files/upm-binaries/68279\_Kim\_Chapter\_6.pdf](https://us.sagepub.com/sites/default/files/upm-binaries/68279_Kim_Chapter_6.pdf)  
39. How to Conduct Conversational Analysis | Guide & Examples ..., accessed October 24, 2025, [https://atlasti.com/research-hub/conversation-analysis](https://atlasti.com/research-hub/conversation-analysis)  
40. Conversation Analysis: "Okay" as a Clue for Understanding Consequentiality \- Wayne A, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://wbeach.sdsu.edu/conversational\_analysis\_as\_a\_clue.pdf](https://wbeach.sdsu.edu/conversational_analysis_as_a_clue.pdf)  
41. Conversation Analysis: An Approach to the Analysis of Social Interaction \- ResearchGate, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/284829746\_Conversation\_analysis\_An\_approach\_to\_the\_analysis\_of\_social\_interaction](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/284829746_Conversation_analysis_An_approach_to_the_analysis_of_social_interaction)  
42. Conversation Analysis \- Simply Psychology, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://www.simplypsychology.org/conversation-analysis.html](https://www.simplypsychology.org/conversation-analysis.html)  
43. Analysis-of-conversation.pdf \- ResearchGate, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carl-Coelho/publication/282859718\_Analysis\_of\_conversation/links/561fb0ae08aea35f267df70b/Analysis-of-conversation.pdf](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carl-Coelho/publication/282859718_Analysis_of_conversation/links/561fb0ae08aea35f267df70b/Analysis-of-conversation.pdf)  
44. (PDF) The use of conversation analysis to study social accessibility ..., accessed October 24, 2025, [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/51150780\_The\_use\_of\_conversation\_analysis\_to\_study\_social\_accessibility\_of\_an\_online\_support\_group\_on\_eating\_disorders](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/51150780_The_use_of_conversation_analysis_to_study_social_accessibility_of_an_online_support_group_on_eating_disorders)  
45. Support Exchange on the Internet: A Content Analysis of an Online Support Group for People Living with Depression, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://utoronto.scholaris.ca/bitstreams/3b14f1dc-3b4e-44dd-9872-2f5efbe504c0/download](https://utoronto.scholaris.ca/bitstreams/3b14f1dc-3b4e-44dd-9872-2f5efbe504c0/download)  
46. Offering Social Support via the Internet: A Case Study of an Online Support Group for Social Workers | Request PDF \- ResearchGate, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233159708\_Offering\_Social\_Support\_via\_the\_Internet\_A\_Case\_Study\_of\_an\_Online\_Support\_Group\_for\_Social\_Workers](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233159708_Offering_Social_Support_via_the_Internet_A_Case_Study_of_an_Online_Support_Group_for_Social_Workers)  
47. Social Connection and Online Engagement: Insights From Interviews With Users of a Mental Health Online Forum, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://mental.jmir.org/2019/3/e11084/](https://mental.jmir.org/2019/3/e11084/)  
48. Content Analysis Method and Examples | Columbia Public Health, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://www.publichealth.columbia.edu/research/population-health-methods/content-analysis](https://www.publichealth.columbia.edu/research/population-health-methods/content-analysis)  
49. www.scribbr.com, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/content-analysis/\#:\~:text=Content%20analysis%20is%20a%20research,Speeches%20and%20interviews](https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/content-analysis/#:~:text=Content%20analysis%20is%20a%20research,Speeches%20and%20interviews)  
50. What is Content Analysis? | Definition, Advantages, Software \- ATLAS.ti, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://atlasti.com/guides/qualitative-research-guide-part-2/content-analysis](https://atlasti.com/guides/qualitative-research-guide-part-2/content-analysis)  
51. The Practical Guide to Qualitative Content Analysis \- Delve, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://delvetool.com/blog/guide-qualitative-content-analysis](https://delvetool.com/blog/guide-qualitative-content-analysis)  
52. atlasti.com, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://atlasti.com/research-hub/latent-content-analysis\#:\~:text=Manifest%20content%20analysis%20is%20concerned,meanings%20conveyed%20by%20the%20text.](https://atlasti.com/research-hub/latent-content-analysis#:~:text=Manifest%20content%20analysis%20is%20concerned,meanings%20conveyed%20by%20the%20text.)  
53. Latent Content Analysis | Definition & Method \- ATLAS.ti, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://atlasti.com/research-hub/latent-content-analysis](https://atlasti.com/research-hub/latent-content-analysis)  
54. Manifest Content Analysis vs. Latent Content Analysis in Qualitative ..., accessed October 24, 2025, [https://delvetool.com/blog/manifest-content-analysis-latent-content-analysis](https://delvetool.com/blog/manifest-content-analysis-latent-content-analysis)  
55. How to Differentiate Between Manifest and Latent Content \- Insight7, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://insight7.io/how-to-differentiate-between-manifest-and-latent-content/](https://insight7.io/how-to-differentiate-between-manifest-and-latent-content/)  
56. Qualitative Analysis of Content \- University of Texas at Austin, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://pages.ischool.utexas.edu/yanz/Content\_analysis.pdf](https://pages.ischool.utexas.edu/yanz/Content_analysis.pdf)  
57. Content Analysis | A Step-by-Step Guide with Examples \- Scribbr, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://www.scribbr.co.uk/research-methods/content-analysis-explained/](https://www.scribbr.co.uk/research-methods/content-analysis-explained/)  
58. Sample Chapters: Handbook of Language Analysis in Psychology \- Guilford Press, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://www.guilford.com/excerpts/dehghani\_ch6.pdf](https://www.guilford.com/excerpts/dehghani_ch6.pdf)  
59. 10 Content Analysis Examples (2025) \- Helpful Professor, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://helpfulprofessor.com/content-analysis-examples/](https://helpfulprofessor.com/content-analysis-examples/)  
60. Analysing Semiotic Choices: Words and Images \- Sites at ..., accessed October 24, 2025, [https://mforbes.sites.gettysburg.edu/cims226/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/Week-10c-Discourse-analysis-chapter-2.pdf](https://mforbes.sites.gettysburg.edu/cims226/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/Week-10c-Discourse-analysis-chapter-2.pdf)  
61. (PDF) Lexical Choice Criteria in Language Generation \- ResearchGate, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/2473883\_Lexical\_Choice\_Criteria\_in\_Language\_Generation](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/2473883_Lexical_Choice_Criteria_in_Language_Generation)  
62. Lexical Cohesion in Discourse Analysis Explained \- Insight7 \- Call ..., accessed October 24, 2025, [https://insight7.io/lexical-cohesion-in-discourse-analysis-explained/](https://insight7.io/lexical-cohesion-in-discourse-analysis-explained/)  
63. Definite Description Lexical Choice: taking Speaker's Personality into account \- ACL Anthology, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://aclanthology.org/L18-1475.pdf](https://aclanthology.org/L18-1475.pdf)  
64. Lexical choice in context: generating procedural texts \- ACL Anthology, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://aclanthology.org/C92-2114.pdf](https://aclanthology.org/C92-2114.pdf)  
65. liedetectortest.com, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://liedetectortest.com/psychology/spotting-lies-how-inconsistent-stories-reveal-deception\#:\~:text=Consistent%20details%20and%20a%20coherent,hiding%20something%20or%20being%20deceitful.](https://liedetectortest.com/psychology/spotting-lies-how-inconsistent-stories-reveal-deception#:~:text=Consistent%20details%20and%20a%20coherent,hiding%20something%20or%20being%20deceitful.)  
66. Spotting Lies: How Inconsistent Stories Reveal Deception \- Lie Detector Test, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://liedetectortest.com/psychology/spotting-lies-how-inconsistent-stories-reveal-deception](https://liedetectortest.com/psychology/spotting-lies-how-inconsistent-stories-reveal-deception)  
67. Confabulation: Definition, Examples, and Treatments \- Verywell Mind, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://www.verywellmind.com/confabulation-definition-examples-and-treatments-4177450](https://www.verywellmind.com/confabulation-definition-examples-and-treatments-4177450)  
68. The Psychology of Conspiracy Theories \- PMC, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5724570/](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5724570/)  
69. Hidden conflicts: Explanations make inconsistencies harder to detect \- ResearchGate, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/221857727\_Hidden\_conflicts\_Explanations\_make\_inconsistencies\_harder\_to\_detect](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/221857727_Hidden_conflicts_Explanations_make_inconsistencies_harder_to_detect)  
70. A psychoanalytic concept of metaphor \- PubMed, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9871831/](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9871831/)  
71. Metaphor and Psychoanalysis (CHAPTER 23\) \- The Cambridge ..., accessed October 24, 2025, [https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-handbook-of-metaphor-and-thought/metaphor-and-psychoanalysis/2E5FBACBC56BB407BD40757FAFA83D7C](https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-handbook-of-metaphor-and-thought/metaphor-and-psychoanalysis/2E5FBACBC56BB407BD40757FAFA83D7C)  
72. The translational metaphor in psychoanalysis, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://dravni.co.il/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/ContentServer.pdf](https://dravni.co.il/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/ContentServer.pdf)  
73. Understanding Spontaneous Symbolism in Psychotherapy Using ..., accessed October 24, 2025, [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11047384/](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11047384/)  
74. Study Group – Meaning and Metaphor in Psychoanalysis, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://apsa.org/event/study-group-meaning-and-metaphor-in-psychoanalysis/](https://apsa.org/event/study-group-meaning-and-metaphor-in-psychoanalysis/)  
75. Metaphor and Psychoanalysis: The Analyst's Metaphors: A Deconstructionist Perspective \- PsyArt Journal, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://psyartjournal.com/article/show/l\_carveth-metaphor\_and\_psychoanalysis\_the\_analysts](https://psyartjournal.com/article/show/l_carveth-metaphor_and_psychoanalysis_the_analysts)  
76. Metaphor \- York University, accessed October 24, 2025, [http://www.yorku.ca/dcarveth/metaphor.htm](http://www.yorku.ca/dcarveth/metaphor.htm)  
77. "A Fallen Woman": The Use of Metaphor in Psychoanalysis \- CUNY Academic Works, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://academicworks.cuny.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=5735\&context=gc\_etds](https://academicworks.cuny.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=5735&context=gc_etds)  
78. ""A Fallen Woman": The Use of Metaphor in Psychoanalysis" by ..., accessed October 24, 2025, [https://academicworks.cuny.edu/gc\_etds/4660/](https://academicworks.cuny.edu/gc_etds/4660/)  
79. Freudian Slips: Origin, Causes, Psychology, and More \- WebMD, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://www.webmd.com/balance/what-freudian-slip](https://www.webmd.com/balance/what-freudian-slip)  
80. www.waldenu.edu, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://www.waldenu.edu/online-masters-programs/ms-in-psychology/resource/ms-in-psychology-insight-the-history-behind-the-freudian-slip\#:\~:text=Unconscious%20thoughts%20and%20feelings%20can,we%20didn't%20mean%20to.](https://www.waldenu.edu/online-masters-programs/ms-in-psychology/resource/ms-in-psychology-insight-the-history-behind-the-freudian-slip#:~:text=Unconscious%20thoughts%20and%20feelings%20can,we%20didn't%20mean%20to.)  
81. What is a Freudian slip? Types, causes, and examples — Calm Blog, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://www.calm.com/blog/freudian-slip](https://www.calm.com/blog/freudian-slip)  
82. What's Really Happening When You Have a Freudian Slip \- Verywell Mind, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-a-freudian-slip-2795851](https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-a-freudian-slip-2795851)  
83. Freudian Slip: Meaning, Examples, Other Explanations \- Simply Psychology, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://www.simplypsychology.org/freudian-slip.html](https://www.simplypsychology.org/freudian-slip.html)  
84. MS in Psychology Insight: The History Behind the Freudian Slip | Walden University, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://www.waldenu.edu/online-masters-programs/ms-in-psychology/resource/ms-in-psychology-insight-the-history-behind-the-freudian-slip](https://www.waldenu.edu/online-masters-programs/ms-in-psychology/resource/ms-in-psychology-insight-the-history-behind-the-freudian-slip)  
85. Meaningful Mistakes: The Freudian Slip Hypothesis | BetterHelp, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://www.betterhelp.com/advice/behavior/meaningful-mistakes-the-freudian-slip-hypothesis/](https://www.betterhelp.com/advice/behavior/meaningful-mistakes-the-freudian-slip-hypothesis/)  
86. Slips of the Mind: Unveiling the Unconscious through Parapraxis \- Prime Scholars, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://www.primescholars.com/articles/slips-of-the-mind-unveiling-the-unconscious-through-parapraxis-124420.html](https://www.primescholars.com/articles/slips-of-the-mind-unveiling-the-unconscious-through-parapraxis-124420.html)  
87. Freudian Slips: The Science Behind the Unconscious Mind \- SWEET INSTITUTE, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://sweetinstitute.com/freudian-slips-the-science-behind-the-unconscious-mind-2/](https://sweetinstitute.com/freudian-slips-the-science-behind-the-unconscious-mind-2/)  
88. “Freudian Slips” and How to Avoid Them \- Bregman Medical Group, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://www.bregmanmedicalgroup.com/blog/freudian-slips-and-how-to-avoid-them/](https://www.bregmanmedicalgroup.com/blog/freudian-slips-and-how-to-avoid-them/)  
89. A review on sentiment analysis and emotion detection from text \- PMC, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8402961/](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8402961/)  
90. Emotion Recognition in Conversations: A Survey Focusing on ..., accessed October 24, 2025, [https://www.mdpi.com/2079-9292/12/22/4714](https://www.mdpi.com/2079-9292/12/22/4714)  
91. (PDF) Sentiment Analysis and Emotion Recognition for Emotionally Adaptive Mobile User Interfaces \- ResearchGate, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/386376119\_Sentiment\_Analysis\_and\_Emotion\_Recognition\_for\_Emotionally\_Adaptive\_Mobile\_User\_Interfaces](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/386376119_Sentiment_Analysis_and_Emotion_Recognition_for_Emotionally_Adaptive_Mobile_User_Interfaces)  
92. Sentiment analysis \- Wikipedia, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentiment\_analysis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentiment_analysis)  
93. Natural Language Processing Sentiment Analysis \- Veris Scientific, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://veris-sci.com/2024/07/natural-language-processing-sentiment-analysis/](https://veris-sci.com/2024/07/natural-language-processing-sentiment-analysis/)  
94. DEEP LEARNING FOR SENTIMENT AND EMOTION DETECTION IN MULTILINGUAL CONTEXTS by Malak Abdel-Ghani Abdullah \- Niner Commons, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://ninercommons.charlotte.edu/record/117/files/Abdullah\_uncc\_0694D\_11836.pdf](https://ninercommons.charlotte.edu/record/117/files/Abdullah_uncc_0694D_11836.pdf)  
95. Detection of emotion by text analysis using machine learning \- Frontiers, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1190326/full](https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1190326/full)  
96. (PDF) Text emotional analysis in Natural Language Processing \- ResearchGate, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/378435596\_Text\_emotional\_analysis\_in\_Natural\_Language\_Processing](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/378435596_Text_emotional_analysis_in_Natural_Language_Processing)  
97. Guide to Sentiment Analysis using Natural Language Processing \- Analytics Vidhya, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://www.analyticsvidhya.com/blog/2021/06/nlp-sentiment-analysis/](https://www.analyticsvidhya.com/blog/2021/06/nlp-sentiment-analysis/)  
98. 8 Best Python Sentiment Analysis Libraries \- BairesDev, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://www.bairesdev.com/blog/best-python-sentiment-analysis-libraries/](https://www.bairesdev.com/blog/best-python-sentiment-analysis-libraries/)  
99. A complete guide to Sentiment Analysis approaches with AI \- Thematic, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://getthematic.com/sentiment-analysis](https://getthematic.com/sentiment-analysis)  
100. (PDF) Sentiment Analysis for Mental Health: Challenges and ..., accessed October 24, 2025, [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/391802393\_Sentiment\_Analysis\_for\_Mental\_Health\_Challenges\_and\_Opportunities](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/391802393_Sentiment_Analysis_for_Mental_Health_Challenges_and_Opportunities)  
101. Research on Sentimental Analysis on Mental Health Using Social ..., accessed October 24, 2025, [https://www.ijsrtjournal.com/article/Research+on+Sentimental+Analysis+on+Mental+Health+Using+Social+Media](https://www.ijsrtjournal.com/article/Research+on+Sentimental+Analysis+on+Mental+Health+Using+Social+Media)  
102. Psychological and Behavioral Insights From Social Media Users: Natural Language Processing–Based Quantitative Study on Mental Well-Being \- PMC \- NIH, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11791453/](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11791453/)  
103. Emotional Sentiment Analysis of Social Media content for Mental Health Safety, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/364708883\_Emotional\_Sentiment\_Analysis\_of\_Social\_Media\_content\_for\_Mental\_Health\_Safety](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/364708883_Emotional_Sentiment_Analysis_of_Social_Media_content_for_Mental_Health_Safety)  
104. Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count (LIWC) \- U-M Software Directory, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://software.umich.edu/titles/linguistic-inquiry-and-word-count-liwc](https://software.umich.edu/titles/linguistic-inquiry-and-word-count-liwc)  
105. The Psychological Meaning of Words: LIWC and Computerized Text ..., accessed October 24, 2025, [https://www.cs.cmu.edu/\~ylataus/files/TausczikPennebaker2010.pdf](https://www.cs.cmu.edu/~ylataus/files/TausczikPennebaker2010.pdf)  
106. LIWC: Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count \- Appalachian Technology Knowledge Base, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://confluence.appstate.edu/spaces/ATKB/pages/197689480/LIWC+Linguistic+Inquiry+and+Word+Count](https://confluence.appstate.edu/spaces/ATKB/pages/197689480/LIWC+Linguistic+Inquiry+and+Word+Count)  
107. Welcome to LIWC-22, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://www.liwc.app/](https://www.liwc.app/)  
108. The Development and Psychometric Properties of LIWC2015, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://mcrc.journalism.wisc.edu/files/2018/04/Manual\_LIWC.pdf](https://mcrc.journalism.wisc.edu/files/2018/04/Manual_LIWC.pdf)  
109. LIWC — How It Works, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://www.liwc.app/help/howitworks](https://www.liwc.app/help/howitworks)  
110. Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count | Centre for Human Evolution, Cognition, and Culture, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://hecc.ubc.ca/quantitative-textual-analysis/qta-practice/linguistic-inquiry-and-word-count/](https://hecc.ubc.ca/quantitative-textual-analysis/qta-practice/linguistic-inquiry-and-word-count/)  
111. LIWC Dictionary \- lit@umich, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://lit.eecs.umich.edu/geoliwc/liwc\_dictionary.html](https://lit.eecs.umich.edu/geoliwc/liwc_dictionary.html)  
112. LIWC \- Receptiviti Documentation, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://docs.receptiviti.com/frameworks/liwc](https://docs.receptiviti.com/frameworks/liwc)  
113. The Development and Psychometric Properties of LIWC2007, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://www.liwc.net/LIWC2007LanguageManual.pdf](https://www.liwc.net/LIWC2007LanguageManual.pdf)  
114. A meta-analysis of linguistic markers of extraversion: Positive emotion and social process words \- School of Journalism and Communication, CUHK, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://www.com.cuhk.edu.hk/publication/qiu-journal-2020-meta.pdf](https://www.com.cuhk.edu.hk/publication/qiu-journal-2020-meta.pdf)  
115. The Development and Psychometric Properties of LIWC2015, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://www.liwc.app/static/documents/LIWC2015%20Manual%20-%20Development%20and%20Psychometrics.pdf](https://www.liwc.app/static/documents/LIWC2015%20Manual%20-%20Development%20and%20Psychometrics.pdf)  
116. LIWC Analysis, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://www.liwc.app/help/liwc](https://www.liwc.app/help/liwc)  
117. A Linguistic Comparison between Human and ChatGPT-Generated Conversations \- arXiv, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://arxiv.org/html/2401.16587v2](https://arxiv.org/html/2401.16587v2)  
118. Using Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count Software to Analyze Group Interaction Language Data \- American Psychological Association, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/features/gdn-gdn0000195.pdf](https://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/features/gdn-gdn0000195.pdf)  
119. Characteristics of online user-generated text predict the emotional intelligence of individuals, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10130158/](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10130158/)  
120. Performing Multilingual Analysis With Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count 2015 (LIWC2015). An Equivalence Study of Four Languages \- Frontiers, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.570568/full](https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.570568/full)  
121. Identification of Emotional Expression With Cancer Survivors: Validation of Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count \- PMC, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7665940/](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7665940/)  
122. Content Analysis | Guide, Methods & Examples \- Scribbr, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/content-analysis/](https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/content-analysis/)  
123. Ambiguity \- Wikipedia, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambiguity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambiguity)  
124. Language Ambiguity \- Translation Journal, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://translationjournal.net/journal/23ambiguity.htm](https://translationjournal.net/journal/23ambiguity.htm)  
125. How meaning similarity influences ambiguous word processing: the current state of the literature \- PMC \- NIH, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5114844/](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5114844/)  
126. Ambiguity, Accessibility, and a Division of Labor for Communicative Success \- PMC \- NIH, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2731310/](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2731310/)  
127. Understanding Cultural Differences to Communicate in a Global World, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://www.iabc.com/catalyst/article/understanding-cultural-differences-to-communicate-in-a-global-world](https://www.iabc.com/catalyst/article/understanding-cultural-differences-to-communicate-in-a-global-world)  
128. Communication Styles (Think Cultural Health), accessed October 24, 2025, [https://thinkculturalhealth.hhs.gov/assets/pdfs/resource-library/communication-styles.pdf](https://thinkculturalhealth.hhs.gov/assets/pdfs/resource-library/communication-styles.pdf)  
129. Chapter 8: Cultural Communication – Oral/Interpersonal Communication \- WisTech Open, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://wtcs.pressbooks.pub/communications/chapter/chapter-8-cultural-communication/](https://wtcs.pressbooks.pub/communications/chapter/chapter-8-cultural-communication/)  
130. The Cultural Nuances of Communication \- Toastmasters International, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://www.toastmasters.org/magazine/magazine-issues/2018/may2018/cultural-nuances](https://www.toastmasters.org/magazine/magazine-issues/2018/may2018/cultural-nuances)  
131. insight7.io, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://insight7.io/discourse-analysis-advantages-and-disadvantages-explained/\#:\~:text=On%20one%20hand%2C%20discourse%20analysis,and%20the%20risk%20of%20oversimplification.](https://insight7.io/discourse-analysis-advantages-and-disadvantages-explained/#:~:text=On%20one%20hand%2C%20discourse%20analysis,and%20the%20risk%20of%20oversimplification.)  
132. Limitations of Critical Discourse Analysis \- Insight7 \- Call Analytics ..., accessed October 24, 2025, [https://insight7.io/limitations-of-critical-discourse-analysis/](https://insight7.io/limitations-of-critical-discourse-analysis/)  
133. Discourse Analysis Advantages and Disadvantages Explained \- Insight7 \- Call Analytics & AI Coaching for Customer Teams, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://insight7.io/discourse-analysis-advantages-and-disadvantages-explained/](https://insight7.io/discourse-analysis-advantages-and-disadvantages-explained/)  
134. www.paultenhave.nl, accessed October 24, 2025, [http://www.paultenhave.nl/mica.htm\#:\~:text=As%20I%20have%20indicated%20above,the%20validity%20of%20its%20findings.](http://www.paultenhave.nl/mica.htm#:~:text=As%20I%20have%20indicated%20above,the%20validity%20of%20its%20findings.)  
135. METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES IN CONVERSATION ANALYSIS, accessed October 24, 2025, [http://www.paultenhave.nl/mica.htm](http://www.paultenhave.nl/mica.htm)  
136. Full article: An Appeal for a Methodological Fusion of Conversation Analysis and Experimental Psychology \- Taylor & Francis Online, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/08351813.2017.1262050](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/08351813.2017.1262050)  
137. Advantages and Limitations of Content Analysis in Research \- Google Docs, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://docs.google.com/document/d/1SPQEro34OQ3J7qR5T3jl2RQoj78oMVuCIw98rqelb-8/edit](https://docs.google.com/document/d/1SPQEro34OQ3J7qR5T3jl2RQoj78oMVuCIw98rqelb-8/edit)  
138. www.scribbr.com, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/content-analysis/\#:\~:text=Disadvantages%20of%20content%20analysis,-Reductive\&text=Content%20analysis%20almost%20always%20involves,research%20bias%20and%20cognitive%20bias.](https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/content-analysis/#:~:text=Disadvantages%20of%20content%20analysis,-Reductive&text=Content%20analysis%20almost%20always%20involves,research%20bias%20and%20cognitive%20bias.)  
139. Advantages and Disadvantages of Content Analysis \- Insight7, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://insight7.io/content-analysis-advantages-and-disadvantages/](https://insight7.io/content-analysis-advantages-and-disadvantages/)  
140. pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7665940/\#:\~:text=Pennebaker%20et%20al%20%5B14%5D%20developed,verbs%2C%20and%20impersonal%20pronouns).](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7665940/#:~:text=Pennebaker%20et%20al%20%5B14%5D%20developed,verbs%2C%20and%20impersonal%20pronouns\).)  
141. www.researchgate.net, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/391802393\_Sentiment\_Analysis\_for\_Mental\_Health\_Challenges\_and\_Opportunities\#:\~:text=However%2C%20applying%20sentiment%20analysis%20to,different%20demographics%20and%20cultural%20backgrounds.](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/391802393_Sentiment_Analysis_for_Mental_Health_Challenges_and_Opportunities#:~:text=However%2C%20applying%20sentiment%20analysis%20to,different%20demographics%20and%20cultural%20backgrounds.)  
142. Sentiment Analysis: Techniques, Limitations, and Case Studies in Data Extraction and Classification \- International Research Journal, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://www.interesjournals.org/articles/sentiment-analysis-techniques-limitations-and-case-studies-in-data-extraction-and-classification-99020.html](https://www.interesjournals.org/articles/sentiment-analysis-techniques-limitations-and-case-studies-in-data-extraction-and-classification-99020.html)  
143. HOW DOES “SUBJECTIVE I” INFLUENCE A ... \- Semantic Scholar, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/6ac1/f33acc56814fe65cb9c2a50cdb9227d8f7a7.pdf](https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/6ac1/f33acc56814fe65cb9c2a50cdb9227d8f7a7.pdf)  
144. www.researchgate.net, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/305760585\_About\_Subjectivity\_in\_Qualitative\_Data\_Interpretation\#:\~:text=The%20subjectivity%20is%20always%20present,to%20fulfill%20the%20research%20objectives.](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/305760585_About_Subjectivity_in_Qualitative_Data_Interpretation#:~:text=The%20subjectivity%20is%20always%20present,to%20fulfill%20the%20research%20objectives.)  
145. (PDF) About Subjectivity in Qualitative Data Interpretation \- ResearchGate, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/305760585\_About\_Subjectivity\_in\_Qualitative\_Data\_Interpretation](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/305760585_About_Subjectivity_in_Qualitative_Data_Interpretation)  
146. Qualitative Research: Data Collection, Analysis, and Management \- PMC \- NIH, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4485510/](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4485510/)  
147. Qualitative Research: Data Collection, Analysis, and Management ..., accessed October 24, 2025, [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4485510/](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4485510/)  
148. What Are 5 Crucial Ethical Considerations in Psychology for 2024?, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://www.infonetica.net/articles/ethical-considerations-psychology](https://www.infonetica.net/articles/ethical-considerations-psychology)  
149. Ethical Considerations in Psychology Research \- Simply Psychology, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://www.simplypsychology.org/ethics.html](https://www.simplypsychology.org/ethics.html)  
150. Ethics guidelines for internet-mediated research | BPS \- British Psychological Society, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://explore.bps.org.uk/content/report-guideline/bpsrep.2021.rep155/chapter/bpsrep.2021.rep155.5](https://explore.bps.org.uk/content/report-guideline/bpsrep.2021.rep155/chapter/bpsrep.2021.rep155.5)  
151. Research Involving Deception | Division of Research and Innovation | Oregon State University, accessed October 24, 2025, [https://research.oregonstate.edu/ori/irb/policies-and-guidance-investigators/guidance/research-involving-deception](https://research.oregonstate.edu/ori/irb/policies-and-guidance-investigators/guidance/research-involving-deception)