# Audit: Lectins in nightshades like tomatoes and potatoes and grains cause widespread inflammation and leaky gut.

- **Generated:** 2026-03-31
- **Reader summary:** [proof.md](proof.md)
- **Proof script:** [proof.py](proof.py)

## Claim Specification

| Field | Value |
|-------|-------|
| subject | Dietary lectins from nightshades (tomatoes, potatoes) and grains |
| compound_operator | AND |
| SC1 property | Lectins are present in nightshades (tomatoes, potatoes) and grains |
| SC1 proof_direction | affirm |
| SC1 operator | >= |
| SC1 threshold | 2 |
| SC1 operator_note | SC1 tests the premise: do nightshades and grains contain lectins? Affirm direction: 2+ authoritative sources confirm lectin presence. Threshold of 2 is appropriate because lectin presence in these foods is scientifically undisputed — a higher threshold would not add meaningful verification for an established biochemical fact. |
| SC2 property | Dietary lectins from normally consumed nightshades and grains cause widespread inflammation and leaky gut in the general population |
| SC2 proof_direction | disprove |
| SC2 operator | >= |
| SC2 threshold | 3 |
| SC2 operator_note | SC2 tests the causative claim. Disprove direction: 3+ independent authoritative medical/scientific sources must explicitly state there is no strong human evidence for lectins in normal dietary contexts causing widespread inflammation or leaky gut. 'Widespread' means affecting the general population eating normally prepared foods, not rare or high-dose exposures. Key distinction: raw or very high-dose lectins (e.g., raw kidney beans) can cause acute GI illness; this proof addresses the popular claim that cooked/normally consumed nightshades and grains drive systemic inflammation and intestinal permeability in the general population. Threshold of 3 from independent institutions is required for scientific disproof. |
| operator_note | The full claim asserts both that lectins exist in these foods (SC1) AND that they cause widespread inflammation and leaky gut (SC2). SC1 is affirmed if 2+ sources confirm lectin presence. SC2 is disproved if 3+ authoritative sources reject the causative claim. If SC1 holds but SC2 is disproved, the compound verdict is PARTIALLY VERIFIED. |

*Source: proof.py JSON summary*

## Fact Registry

| ID | Key | Label |
|----|-----|-------|
| B1 | sc1_banner_health | SC1: Banner Health — lectins found in nightshades (tomatoes, potatoes) and grains |
| B2 | sc1_harvard | SC1: Harvard T.H. Chan Nutrition Source — lectins in grains and legumes |
| B3 | sc2_md_anderson | SC2: MD Anderson Cancer Center — no strong human evidence for lectin-induced inflammation |
| B4 | sc2_harvard | SC2: Harvard T.H. Chan Nutrition Source — very limited human research on dietary lectin health effects |
| B5 | sc2_cornell | SC2: Cornell Center for Nutrition Studies — lectin-hazard argument not supported |
| A1 | — | SC1 verified source count (lectin presence) |
| A2 | — | SC2 verified refuting source count (causation rejected) |

*Source: proof.py JSON summary*

## Full Evidence Table

### Type A (Computed) Facts

| ID | Fact | Method | Result |
|----|------|--------|--------|
| A1 | SC1 verified source count (lectin presence) | count(SC1 verified citations) >= 2 | 2 |
| A2 | SC2 verified refuting source count (causation rejected) | count(SC2 verified refuting citations) >= 3 | 3 |

*Source: proof.py JSON summary*

### Type B (Empirical) Facts

| ID | Fact | Source | URL | Quote | Status | Method | Credibility |
|----|------|--------|-----|-------|--------|--------|-------------|
| B1 | SC1: Lectins in nightshades | Banner Health (major US health system) | https://www.bannerhealth.com/healthcareblog/teach-me/are-lectins-in-your-diet-bad-for-your-gut | "Vegetables: Nightshades like tomatoes, potatoes and eggplants" | verified | full_quote | Tier 2 (unknown) |
| B2 | SC1: Lectins in grains and legumes | Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health — The Nutrition Source | https://nutritionsource.hsph.harvard.edu/anti-nutrients/lectins/ | "They are found in all plants, but raw legumes (beans, lentils, peas, soybeans, peanuts) and whole grains like wheat contain the highest amounts of lectins." | verified | full_quote | Tier 4 (academic) |
| B3 | SC2: No strong human evidence for inflammation | MD Anderson Cancer Center | https://www.mdanderson.org/cancerwise/should-you-eat-a-lectin-free-diet.h00-159695178.html | "Aside from Celiac disease, which is specific to gluten, there is currently no strong evidence in human studies to support the claim that foods high in lectins consistently cause inflammation." | verified | full_quote | Tier 2 (unknown) |
| B4 | SC2: Very limited human research on lectin effects | Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health — The Nutrition Source | https://nutritionsource.hsph.harvard.edu/anti-nutrients/lectins/ | "There is very limited research in humans on the amount of active lectins consumed in the diet and their long-term health effects." | verified | full_quote | Tier 4 (academic) |
| B5 | SC2: Lectin-hazard argument not convincing | Cornell University Center for Nutrition Studies | https://nutritionstudies.org/the-plant-paradox-by-steven-grundy-md-commentary/ | "Dr. Gundry has not made a convincing argument that lectins as a class are hazardous." | verified | full_quote | Tier 2 (unknown) |

*Source: proof.py JSON summary*

## Citation Verification Details

**B1 — sc1_banner_health**
- Status: `verified`
- Method: `full_quote`
- Fetch mode: `live`
- Coverage: N/A (full match)

**B2 — sc1_harvard**
- Status: `verified`
- Method: `full_quote`
- Fetch mode: `live`
- Coverage: N/A (full match)

**B3 — sc2_md_anderson**
- Status: `verified`
- Method: `full_quote`
- Fetch mode: `live`
- Coverage: N/A (full match)

**B4 — sc2_harvard**
- Status: `verified`
- Method: `full_quote`
- Fetch mode: `live`
- Coverage: N/A (full match)

**B5 — sc2_cornell**
- Status: `verified`
- Method: `full_quote`
- Fetch mode: `live`
- Coverage: N/A (full match)

All 5 citations verified on live fetch. No unverified citations.

*Source: proof.py JSON summary*

## Computation Traces

```
Verifying citations...
  [✓] sc1_banner_health: Full quote verified for sc1_banner_health (source: tier 2/unknown)
  [✓] sc1_harvard: Full quote verified for sc1_harvard (source: tier 4/academic)
  [✓] sc2_md_anderson: Full quote verified for sc2_md_anderson (source: tier 2/unknown)
  [✓] sc2_harvard: Full quote verified for sc2_harvard (source: tier 4/academic)
  [✓] sc2_cornell: Full quote verified for sc2_cornell (source: tier 2/unknown)
  SC1 confirmed sources: 2 / 2
  SC2 confirmed refuting sources: 3 / 3
  SC1: lectin presence — verified source count vs threshold: 2 >= 2 = True
  SC2: causation rejection — verified refuting source count vs threshold: 3 >= 3 = True
```

*Source: proof.py inline output (execution trace)*

## Independent Source Agreement (Rule 6)

**SC1 cross-check:**
- Sources consulted: 2
- Sources verified: 2
- Sources: sc1_banner_health → verified; sc1_harvard → verified
- Independence note: Sources from different institutions — Banner Health (major US health system) and Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health (academic research institution). Both confirm lectin presence in the claimed food categories independently.

**SC2 cross-check:**
- Sources consulted: 3
- Sources verified: 3
- Sources: sc2_md_anderson → verified; sc2_harvard → verified; sc2_cornell → verified
- Independence note: Sources from three independent institutions — MD Anderson Cancer Center (cancer/clinical medicine), Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health (public health academic), and Cornell University Center for Nutrition Studies (nutrition science academic). All three independently reach the same conclusion: no strong human evidence for the causative claim.

*Source: proof.py JSON summary*

## Adversarial Checks (Rule 5)

**Check 1:** Do any peer-reviewed human clinical trials demonstrate that lectins in normally cooked nightshades or grains cause chronic inflammation?
- Performed: Searched for 'lectin inflammation human clinical trial cooked foods nightshades'. Reviewed the 1999 BMJ letter 'Do dietary lectins cause disease?' (Freed, PMC1115436), which raises theoretical human implications but acknowledges the evidence is 'suggestive' and based primarily on animal models and in-vitro studies, not human clinical trials.
- Finding: No human RCTs found demonstrating that normally consumed cooked nightshades or grains cause chronic inflammation via lectins. The animal-model and in-vitro evidence does not translate to confirmed causal disease from dietary lectins in ordinary preparation contexts.
- Breaks proof: No

**Check 2:** Does Dr. Steven Gundry's 'Plant Paradox' provide clinical evidence for widespread lectin-caused leaky gut?
- Performed: Searched for 'Gundry Plant Paradox clinical evidence lectins leaky gut peer review'. Cornell Center for Nutrition Studies review found that Gundry's primary cited evidence is an unreviewed poster abstract. Banner Health notes that studies on gut lining disruption from lectins focus on animal models or isolated/uncooked lectins, not normally prepared foods.
- Finding: The Plant Paradox hypothesis rests on preliminary/anecdotal evidence, an unreviewed poster abstract, and animal/in-vitro studies. No large human RCTs support the widespread leaky gut claim from normally consumed, cooked foods.
- Breaks proof: No

**Check 3:** Do populations with high lectin intake (legumes, whole grains, nightshades) show worse inflammatory or health outcomes?
- Performed: Searched for 'Blue Zones legume consumption longevity inflammation' and 'whole grain health outcomes epidemiology anti-inflammatory'. Cornell Nutrition Studies notes Blue Zones populations — known for exceptional longevity — consistently consume legumes (high in lectins). Multiple epidemiological studies link legume and whole grain consumption to reduced inflammation markers and better cardiovascular/metabolic outcomes.
- Finding: Epidemiological evidence directly contradicts the 'widespread harm' claim: populations with the highest lectin-food intake show better, not worse, health and longevity outcomes.
- Breaks proof: No

**Check 4:** Can raw or improperly cooked lectins (e.g., raw kidney beans) cause acute illness, and does this validate the broader inflammation claim?
- Performed: Searched for 'raw kidney beans lectins toxicity phytohaemagglutinin food poisoning'. Well-established: raw kidney beans contain phytohaemagglutinin (PHA), which causes acute GI illness within hours. Cooking at boiling point for ≥10 minutes destroys PHA.
- Finding: Raw/undercooked high-lectin foods CAN cause acute GI illness — this is toxicological fact. However, this is an acute effect of improperly prepared food, not evidence for chronic widespread inflammation or leaky gut from normally cooked dietary lectins. The claim's framing ('nightshades like tomatoes') does not specify raw consumption, so this acute mechanism does not support the broad claim.
- Breaks proof: No

*Source: proof.py JSON summary*

## Source Credibility Assessment

| Fact ID | Domain | Type | Tier | Note |
|---------|--------|------|------|------|
| B1 | bannerhealth.com | unknown | 2 | Unclassified domain — verify source authority manually. Banner Health is a large US nonprofit health system. |
| B2 | harvard.edu | academic | 4 | Academic domain (.edu) — Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health. |
| B3 | mdanderson.org | unknown | 2 | Unclassified domain — verify source authority manually. MD Anderson Cancer Center is a major US NCI-designated cancer center. |
| B4 | harvard.edu | academic | 4 | Academic domain (.edu) — Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health. |
| B5 | nutritionstudies.org | unknown | 2 | Unclassified domain — verify source authority manually. Cornell Center for Nutrition Studies, founded by T. Colin Campbell; this domain is not .edu but the institution is a Cornell-affiliated research center. |

Three citations (B1, B3, B5) are from tier-2 (unclassified) domains. However:
- B1 (Banner Health) is used only for SC1 (lectin presence), an undisputed fact corroborated by the tier-4 Harvard source (B2).
- B3 (MD Anderson) is the strongest quote for SC2. MD Anderson is one of the most prominent cancer centers in the US; the lower tier reflects domain-name classification limits, not source authority.
- The SC2 disproof stands independently on B3 (MD Anderson) and B4 (Harvard, tier 4) alone — two verified sources from two different highly reputable institutions both reject the causative claim. B5 provides corroborating evidence but is not required for the threshold to be met.

*Source: proof.py JSON summary*

## Extraction Records

For qualitative proofs, extraction records show citation verification status per source rather than numeric value extraction.

| Fact ID | Extracted Value | Value in Quote | Quote Snippet |
|---------|----------------|----------------|---------------|
| B1 | verified | Yes | "Vegetables: Nightshades like tomatoes, potatoes and eggplants" |
| B2 | verified | Yes | "They are found in all plants, but raw legumes (beans, lentils, peas, soybeans, p..." |
| B3 | verified | Yes | "Aside from Celiac disease, which is specific to gluten, there is currently no st..." |
| B4 | verified | Yes | "There is very limited research in humans on the amount of active lectins consume..." |
| B5 | verified | Yes | "Dr. Gundry has not made a convincing argument that lectins as a class are hazard..." |

Extraction method: citation verification status from `verify_all_citations()`. For qualitative proofs, the "extracted value" is the verification status string; "value in quote" indicates whether the citation is countable toward the threshold (status in {"verified", "partial"}).

*Source: proof.py JSON summary; extraction method: author analysis*

## Hardening Checklist

- **Rule 1 (No hand-typed values):** N/A — qualitative proof; no numeric or date values extracted from quotes.
- **Rule 2 (Verify citations by fetching):** All 5 citations fetched and quotes confirmed on live pages via `verify_all_citations()`. Status: all `verified` (full_quote method).
- **Rule 3 (Anchor to system time):** N/A — no time-dependent logic in this proof. Proof generation date recorded in generator block.
- **Rule 4 (Explicit claim interpretation):** `CLAIM_FORMAL` present with `operator_note` at compound level and per-sub-claim `operator_note`. Both sub-claims document threshold rationale and key distinctions.
- **Rule 5 (Adversarial checks):** 4 adversarial checks performed via web search before writing proof code. Checked for human RCTs (none found), Plant Paradox evidence quality (unreviewed poster abstract), population-level epidemiological evidence (contradicts claim), and raw lectin acute toxicity (not applicable to the population-level claim).
- **Rule 6 (Independent cross-checks):** SC1 uses 2 sources from different institutions (Banner Health, Harvard); SC2 uses 3 sources from different institutions (MD Anderson, Harvard, Cornell). Sources are independently published.
- **Rule 7 (No hard-coded constants):** `compare()` used for all threshold evaluations. No inline formulas or hard-coded constants.
- **validate_proof.py result:** PASS — 14/14 checks passed, 0 issues, 0 warnings.

*Source: proof.py inline output (execution trace); validate_proof.py output*

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Generated by [proof-engine](https://github.com/yaniv-golan/proof-engine) v1.3.1 on 2026-03-31.
