# Proof: The superior method for enhancing neuroplasticity in adults is neurofeedback training compared to exercise or sleep optimization.

- **Generated:** 2026-03-27
- **Verdict:** DISPROVED
- **Audit trail:** [proof_audit.md](proof_audit.md) | [proof.py](proof.py)

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## Key Findings

- **4 of 4 independent peer-reviewed sources** reject the claim that neurofeedback is the superior neuroplasticity-enhancement method.
- **Aerobic exercise** has meta-analytic evidence showing a moderate effect size (Hedges' g = 0.46–0.58) for increasing Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) — a primary molecular marker of neuroplasticity — after a single session (B1) and with regular training (B1, B2).
- **Neurofeedback's** own literature explicitly states that "current research does not support conclusive results about its efficacy" (B3) and that "recent accumulating evidence seems to refute the clinical superiority of feedback training over sham treatment" (B4).
- No meta-analysis or RCT was found showing neurofeedback produces neuroplasticity effects (BDNF, hippocampal volume, gray matter) exceeding those of aerobic exercise. The strongest pro-neurofeedback finding (Galang et al. 2025, SMD = 0.32) measures functional neural modulation during sessions only — not structural neuroplasticity — and is smaller than exercise effect sizes.

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## Claim Interpretation

**Natural language claim:** "The superior method for enhancing neuroplasticity in adults is neurofeedback training compared to exercise or sleep optimization."

**Formal interpretation:** The claim asserts neurofeedback is THE SUPERIOR method — meaning it outperforms BOTH exercise AND sleep optimization for neuroplasticity. Disproof requires showing at least one of those alternatives has stronger or more reliably demonstrated neuroplasticity effects than neurofeedback.

**"Superior" operationalized as:** larger effect sizes, better replication across independent studies, and clearer mechanistic evidence in meta-analyses and systematic reviews.

**"Neuroplasticity" operationalized as:** changes in BDNF levels, hippocampal volume, gray matter density, or functional neural modulation — the primary measurable markers in the scientific literature. A narrow redefinition limited to EEG brainwave modulation is not the standard scientific meaning and was considered in adversarial checks (see below).

**Disproof threshold:** ≥ 3 of 4 independent sources confirming that exercise or sleep has stronger neuroplasticity evidence than neurofeedback, OR that neurofeedback's evidence base is insufficient to support the superiority claim.

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## Evidence Summary

| ID | Fact | Verified |
|----|------|----------|
| B1 | Szuhany et al. 2014 meta-analysis — exercise and BDNF effect sizes (J Psychiatric Research) | Yes |
| B2 | Cardoso et al. 2024 systematic review — aerobic exercise and neuroplasticity (Int J Exercise Science) | Yes |
| B3 | Marzbani et al. 2016 comprehensive review — neurofeedback efficacy limitations (Basic Clin Neurosci) | Yes |
| B4 | Orndorff-Plunkett et al. 2017 — neurofeedback versus sham controls (Brain Sciences) | Yes |
| A1 | Count of independent sources rejecting neurofeedback-as-superior claim | Computed: 4 sources reject claim |

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## Proof Logic

The claim has two requirements: (1) neurofeedback > exercise for neuroplasticity, and (2) neurofeedback > sleep optimization for neuroplasticity. Disproving either suffices.

**Exercise vs. neurofeedback:**

The exercise evidence is quantified and replicated across independent meta-analyses. Szuhany et al. 2014 (B1) is a meta-analysis of 29 studies that found a moderate effect size for increases in BDNF — the primary neurotrophin driving synaptic plasticity, hippocampal neurogenesis, and gray matter maintenance — following a single session of exercise (Hedges' g = 0.46, p < 0.001), with a larger effect in trained individuals (Hedges' g = 0.58). BDNF is the most widely used mechanistic marker of neuroplasticity in human studies. Independently, Cardoso et al. 2024 (B2) — a systematic review of exercise and neuroplasticity in adults — confirms that "moderate to high intensity aerobic exercise (AE), increases the level of peripheral BDNF," with consistent evidence across neurological and healthy populations.

By contrast, the neurofeedback evidence base fails to meet the same standard. Marzbani et al. 2016 (B3) — a comprehensive review of neurofeedback — concludes that "current research does not support conclusive results about its efficacy." Orndorff-Plunkett et al. 2017 (B4) reports that "recent accumulating evidence seems to refute the clinical superiority of feedback training over sham treatment," meaning neurofeedback's observed effects may not exceed placebo in controlled conditions.

The best contemporary pro-neurofeedback evidence (Galang et al. 2025, not a primary citation but reviewed in adversarial checks) reports only SMD = 0.32 for functional neural modulation during training sessions — a smaller effect than exercise's BDNF response, measuring a different outcome (EEG activity during sessions, not structural neuroplasticity), and contested by sham-controlled trials.

**Cross-check:** B1 and B2 are from independent research groups with independent datasets, both confirming exercise's neuroplasticity effects. B3 and B4 are independent review articles from different authors, both documenting neurofeedback's evidentiary gaps. All four sources converge on the same conclusion (4/4 confirming, A1).

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## Counter-Evidence Search

Three adversarial checks were performed:

**1. Any meta-analysis showing neurofeedback > exercise for neuroplasticity?**
Searched PubMed, Google Scholar, and PMC for "neurofeedback neuroplasticity BDNF meta-analysis," "neurofeedback hippocampal volume," and "neurofeedback superior exercise neuroplasticity." No such meta-analysis was found. The most favorable neurofeedback meta-analysis (Galang et al. 2025) reports SMD = 0.32 for functional neural modulation — below exercise BDNF effect sizes and measuring a different, weaker outcome. *Does not break the disproof.*

**2. Could "neuroplasticity" mean only EEG brainwave modulation, where neurofeedback might excel?**
Reviewed standard neuroscience definitions and the functional-vs-structural distinction in Galang et al. 2025. Standard neuroplasticity definitions encompass BDNF, synaptic density, hippocampal volume, and gray matter — not just EEG measures. Even under a generous narrow interpretation, neurofeedback's functional modulation effects (SMD = 0.32) cannot rule out placebo. *Does not break the disproof.*

**3. Any RCT comparing neurofeedback head-to-head against exercise for neuroplasticity?**
Searched PubMed for "neurofeedback exercise RCT neuroplasticity comparison." No such head-to-head trial was found. Thibault et al. 2017 (Brain, Oxford) notes the paucity of double-blind sham-controlled neurofeedback trials, and those that exist show sham and genuine neurofeedback produce comparable outcomes. The absence of supporting comparative evidence strengthens the disproof. *Does not break the disproof.*

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## Conclusion

**DISPROVED.** The claim that neurofeedback training is the superior method for enhancing neuroplasticity in adults — compared to exercise or sleep optimization — is contradicted by the peer-reviewed literature. Aerobic exercise has strong, quantified, mechanistically-linked evidence for neuroplasticity enhancement (BDNF Hedges' g = 0.46–0.58 in meta-analyses, B1, B2). Neurofeedback's own review literature explicitly states its efficacy lacks conclusive support (B3) and that its effects may not exceed sham controls (B4). No meta-analysis, systematic review, or RCT supports the superiority of neurofeedback over exercise for neuroplasticity outcomes. All 4 citations are from NIH PubMed Central (Tier 5, government domain) and were fully verified by live fetch.
